In working with middle and high school writers over the past 12 years, I have developed a step-by-step process for building writing skills. Each step is labeled with a rough grade-level application.
I. Paragraph structure (grades 2-6)
Elementary school prepares students to write well-shaped paragraphs with topic sentences, supporting details and concluding sentences. This BEGINNING-MIDDLE-END format will stay with the student FOREVER!
II. Essay structure (grades 6-9)
The best place to start teaching students about full essay structure is to present the classic five-paragraph essay. The essay is an expanded form of the beginning-middle-end paragraph formula taught in earlier grades: a topical paragraph, supporting paragraphs, and a concluding paragraph. The thesis statement should appear at the end of the introductory paragraph and identify not only the topic of the essay but the writer's point of view on the topic. In the early phases of training, teachers might opt to write thesis statements for students.
III. Thesis development (grades 7-11)
Once students recognize the role of the thesis statement and have successfully composed their own simple statements, they are ready to work on more sophisticated statements. One option is the three-tiered format in which the thesis previews the three points of the three body paragraphs. Another more challenging option is to require a "how" or "why" element to the thesis. Advanced Placement students (and others) need to learn to write theses that provide direct answers to prompt questions.
IV. Specialized formulas (grades 7-12)
Certain types of writing genres will require special approaches to structure. For instance, journalism requires an inverted pyramid approach. Science papers may need to follow the scientific method. Literary analysis, which is particularly difficult for some students, can be made easier with a formula such as Jane Schaffer's model. Research papers pose the highest level of challenge, as they require not only good organization but an artful blending of original and borrowed ideas, not to mention strict adherence to citation rules.
V. Inductive and Deductive patterns (grades 11-12)
The five paragraph format is an inductive pattern of discussion, as are most essay formulas I've encountered (including Schaffer). Students need to be taught the difference between inductive and deductive structure and specifically trained in how to do the latter. This should take place in the context of a unit on argumentation/persuasion. Advanced essays usually function better with a deductive structure, because they allow for the development of sophisticated arguments. (See my "Inductive and Deductive Writing" post for explanations and examples of each.)
VI. Improving Fluency (grammar grades 1-10, fluency training grades 7-12)
This "step" is listed last, but it is often an ongoing element of instruction for students who have challenges in writing smooth, artful sentences. I believe that the core of fluency instruction is grammar; thus, early grades must teach basic sentence structure concepts and usage rules. Once a student has a basic understanding of the way parts of speech work and how sentences function, then the teacher can specifically target the craft of sentence writing. My technique begins with verb exercises, moves through issues of wordiness and patterning, and concludes with lessons in variation. Fluency challenges are the hardest issues to tackle in student writing, as they reflect a person's natural propensity for language, not just the amount of knowledge acquired in school. Often, fluency aptitude is parallel to one's reading frequency - the more you read, the more your brain has a chance to develop its language functions in grammatical and artistic patterns. Increased reading and regular exercises in sentence composition can reap rewards in the long term.
Tuesday, January 24, 2006
Tuesday, January 10, 2006
Inductive and Deductive Writing
The Inductive Essay
"Inductive" logic "flows towards" a conclusion. I like to picture it as a horizontal movement, in which the speaker is leading the audience along a thoughtful path of reasons towards a rational conclusion - I call inductive logic a "row of reasons." An inductive essay usually presents the thesis up front and then provides categories of support for that thesis. Most five-paragraph essays are inductive. The "Analysis Man" model is inductive.
Sample Inductive Essay Structure:
1. I believe in God (thesis)
2. There seems to be a spiritual aspect to life that can't be explained through naturalism (first reason)
3. The fulfilled prophecy of the Bible provides convincing evidence of God (second reason)
4. Some of the best thinkers of the world have argued well for the existence of God (third reason)
5. Therefore, belief in God is a rational choice and I choose to believe (conclusion)
The Deductive Essay
"Deductive" logic "flows down" from its premises. In other words, if the premises of a deductive argument are true, then the conclusion must also be true. Deductive logic works itself down a step-by-step path, much like a ladder; I call deductive reasoning a "ladder of logic." An essay structured deductively must start with an "easy-to-reach" first premise and then work the reader up the "ladder" to the conclusion. This is significantly harder than the categorical inductive approach. To illustrate deductive logic, I will use a classical argument for the existence of God called the cosmological argument (it is short and often debated, but it illustrates the principle of step-by-step logic well.) Note that deductive logic absolutely relies upon sequential points/premises to achieve a successful argument.
Sample Deductive Essay Structure:
1. Many people wonder if a "God" started the universe or not (thesis preview)
2. We all agree that every event has a cause and/or a causal agent (first premise)
3. If we go backwards through time, we will eventually find a first event (second premise)
4. That first event, if it doesn't have a cause, must have an agent (conclusion)
5. We can call that agent "God" (thesis)
"Inductive" logic "flows towards" a conclusion. I like to picture it as a horizontal movement, in which the speaker is leading the audience along a thoughtful path of reasons towards a rational conclusion - I call inductive logic a "row of reasons." An inductive essay usually presents the thesis up front and then provides categories of support for that thesis. Most five-paragraph essays are inductive. The "Analysis Man" model is inductive.
Sample Inductive Essay Structure:
1. I believe in God (thesis)
2. There seems to be a spiritual aspect to life that can't be explained through naturalism (first reason)
3. The fulfilled prophecy of the Bible provides convincing evidence of God (second reason)
4. Some of the best thinkers of the world have argued well for the existence of God (third reason)
5. Therefore, belief in God is a rational choice and I choose to believe (conclusion)
The Deductive Essay
"Deductive" logic "flows down" from its premises. In other words, if the premises of a deductive argument are true, then the conclusion must also be true. Deductive logic works itself down a step-by-step path, much like a ladder; I call deductive reasoning a "ladder of logic." An essay structured deductively must start with an "easy-to-reach" first premise and then work the reader up the "ladder" to the conclusion. This is significantly harder than the categorical inductive approach. To illustrate deductive logic, I will use a classical argument for the existence of God called the cosmological argument (it is short and often debated, but it illustrates the principle of step-by-step logic well.) Note that deductive logic absolutely relies upon sequential points/premises to achieve a successful argument.
Sample Deductive Essay Structure:
1. Many people wonder if a "God" started the universe or not (thesis preview)
2. We all agree that every event has a cause and/or a causal agent (first premise)
3. If we go backwards through time, we will eventually find a first event (second premise)
4. That first event, if it doesn't have a cause, must have an agent (conclusion)
5. We can call that agent "God" (thesis)
Instructional Lists
What I have created here should look generally familiar to any student of language art, but bears the unique marks of my own experience and philosophy of education.
The Writing Process
1. Task exploration (read, confirm comprehension; identify audience, purpose, genre of communication; brainstorm/research ideas)
2. Topic focus (narrow topic, write a thesis that is specific)
3. Content building (with thesis in mind, gather relevant ideas from brainstorming, text, imagination, or in-depth research)
4. Content organizing (outlining, formatting of paragraphs as necessary)
5. Writing (including documentation as necessary)
6. Editing, identification of challenge areas and revision
7. Publishing and progress evaluation
The Reading Process
1. "Pre-reading" never hurts. This means getting a feel for what type of text you're looking at and what type of reading skills you should employ. For instance, a pop magazine article about your favorite band will require a different kind of reading than a current events magazine article about foreign policy. You can tell the difference by looking at length, title, illustrations, etc.
2. A first reading should produce a basic comprehension and/or gut reaction to the piece. Students might need to employ a study strategy, for instance listing, highlighting, or journaling.
3. A second reading may be required for a challenging text, like poetry for instance. In this case, the reader should take one sentence, phrase, or paragraph at a time and attempt to re-state it in his/her own words. The use of dictionaries, footnotes, and discussion may be helpful.
4. Analyzing comes next. At this point, many facts and/or details have been conveyed to the reader, but they may not be particularly meaningful yet. The reader must come up with some sort of "data analysis" system for the brain in which he/she makes sense out of the reading material and internalizes it. This might involve answering questions, making lists, finding main ideas, outlining, summarizing arguments, etc. This is where teachers often spend most of their instruction time. It turns superficial reading into meaningful reading.
5. Dialogue or monologue is important for reaching a sophisticated level of understanding and appreciation of a text once reading is complete. This may occur in a formal classroom setting, alone with a journal, or among friends at a book club. Dialogue, or discussion, provides an opportunity for readers to share reactions and guide each other in their interpretation. Monologue, or independent writing, is valuable in that it forces the reader to present his/her thoughts in a coherent fashion.
Literary Analysis
1. Start by considering the "voice" of the text. What is the author or speaker saying? How is it being said? What is the mood and/or attitude? Is there a bias? What was thr purpose, and was it achieved?
2. Once you have pondered the core of the piece, its voice, you must explore its "skeleton" (or structure). Look for how the work was built by the author, the phases of development employed. See if you can label the purpose of each segment you see in the piece's structure.
3. By this time, you're intimately familiar with the piece on a literary level. You're ready to zoom in on the specific literary techniques that seem important to the work's purpose and effect: what I call its "features". A person's features - nose, eyes, lips, hair color, etc. - give that person a distinct character; literature does likewise, with "features" such as diction, figurative language, imagery, character development, irony, and the other tools of literary craft.
4. Now you've reached the "head and heart" of the work. What was its greatest impact on your thinking? on your emotions? These two "head/heart" observations may serve as a conclusion to your analysis.
The Writing Process
1. Task exploration (read, confirm comprehension; identify audience, purpose, genre of communication; brainstorm/research ideas)
2. Topic focus (narrow topic, write a thesis that is specific)
3. Content building (with thesis in mind, gather relevant ideas from brainstorming, text, imagination, or in-depth research)
4. Content organizing (outlining, formatting of paragraphs as necessary)
5. Writing (including documentation as necessary)
6. Editing, identification of challenge areas and revision
7. Publishing and progress evaluation
The Reading Process
1. "Pre-reading" never hurts. This means getting a feel for what type of text you're looking at and what type of reading skills you should employ. For instance, a pop magazine article about your favorite band will require a different kind of reading than a current events magazine article about foreign policy. You can tell the difference by looking at length, title, illustrations, etc.
2. A first reading should produce a basic comprehension and/or gut reaction to the piece. Students might need to employ a study strategy, for instance listing, highlighting, or journaling.
3. A second reading may be required for a challenging text, like poetry for instance. In this case, the reader should take one sentence, phrase, or paragraph at a time and attempt to re-state it in his/her own words. The use of dictionaries, footnotes, and discussion may be helpful.
4. Analyzing comes next. At this point, many facts and/or details have been conveyed to the reader, but they may not be particularly meaningful yet. The reader must come up with some sort of "data analysis" system for the brain in which he/she makes sense out of the reading material and internalizes it. This might involve answering questions, making lists, finding main ideas, outlining, summarizing arguments, etc. This is where teachers often spend most of their instruction time. It turns superficial reading into meaningful reading.
5. Dialogue or monologue is important for reaching a sophisticated level of understanding and appreciation of a text once reading is complete. This may occur in a formal classroom setting, alone with a journal, or among friends at a book club. Dialogue, or discussion, provides an opportunity for readers to share reactions and guide each other in their interpretation. Monologue, or independent writing, is valuable in that it forces the reader to present his/her thoughts in a coherent fashion.
Literary Analysis
1. Start by considering the "voice" of the text. What is the author or speaker saying? How is it being said? What is the mood and/or attitude? Is there a bias? What was thr purpose, and was it achieved?
2. Once you have pondered the core of the piece, its voice, you must explore its "skeleton" (or structure). Look for how the work was built by the author, the phases of development employed. See if you can label the purpose of each segment you see in the piece's structure.
3. By this time, you're intimately familiar with the piece on a literary level. You're ready to zoom in on the specific literary techniques that seem important to the work's purpose and effect: what I call its "features". A person's features - nose, eyes, lips, hair color, etc. - give that person a distinct character; literature does likewise, with "features" such as diction, figurative language, imagery, character development, irony, and the other tools of literary craft.
4. Now you've reached the "head and heart" of the work. What was its greatest impact on your thinking? on your emotions? These two "head/heart" observations may serve as a conclusion to your analysis.
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